Handbook

Contents

• Introduction to Libya
• Practical Matters
  • Weather
  • What to Wear
  • Business Hours
  • Money
  • Photography
  • Food
  • Packing Tips
• Places to Visit
• Tips on Etiquette
• Religions of the Middle East
• What to Buy in Libya
• The Arabic Language in Libya
• Arabic Alphabet
• Music in the Arab World
• Gift Giving in Arab Countries
• Please be Forewarned

Introduction to Libya

Libya, in full, the Great Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, nation of northern Africa, comprising the former Italian colonies of Tripolitania, Cyrenaica, and Fezzan. It is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean Sea, on the east by Egypt, on the southeast by the Republic of Sudan, on the south by Chad and Niger, on the west by Algeria, and on the northwest by Tunisia. The area of Libya, one of the largest countries in Africa, is 1,757,000 sq km (678,400 sq mi). Tripoli is the capital and largest city.

About 90 percent of Libya is made up of barren, rock-strewn plains and sand sea, with two small areas of hills rising to about 900 m (about 3,000 ft) in the northwest and northeast. In the south the land rises to the Tibesti massif along the Chad border. There are no permanent rivers or streams in Libya.

Climatic conditions in Libya are characterized by extreme heat and aridity. Desert and subdesert regions have little precipitation. On the coast the annual rainfall rarely exceeds 380 mm (15 in).

The principal resource of Libya is petroleum. Natural gas, gypsum, limestone, marine salt, potash, and natron are also mined and exported.

Date palms and olive and orange trees can be seen throughout the country, and junipers and mastic trees are found in the higher elevations. Wildlife includes desert animals such as hyena, gazelle, wildcat, eagles, hawks, and vultures.

The indigenous population of Libya is mostly Berber and Arab in origin; about 17 percent of the population consists of foreign workers and their families. Some 88 percent of the people live in urban areas, although some Libyans still live in nomadic or semi-nomadic groups. In 2002 the estimated population was 5,368,585, giving the country an overall population density of 8 people per square mile. More than two-thirds of the population lives in the more densely settled coastal areas.

About 97 percent of all Libyans are Sunni Muslim. A small number are Roman Catholic. Arabic is the official language, although Berber is sometimes spoken and English and Italian are used in trade.

The Government Library and National Archives are located in Tripoli, and the country’s largest library, containing more than 300,000 volumes, is affiliated with the University of Garyounis in Banghazi. Among the leading museums, which contain mainly antiquities excavated from various ruins, are the Leptis Magna Museum at Al Khums, and the archaeological, natural history, epigraphy, prehistory, and ethnography museums at Tripoli.

HISTORY

The Phoenicians founded colonies on the coast of Tripolitania, which were conquered by Carthage in the 6th century BC. Greeks subsequently established settlements in Cyrenaica. The Greek historian Herodotus, writing in the 5th century BC, described the Garamantes people of the Fezzan, who were sedentary farmers and used horse-drawn chariots in warfare. His account has been verified in the 20th century by ancient cave art, discovered in the Jabal Akakus (jabal means “mountains”) of the western Fezzan and the Jabal al ‘Uwaynat near the Egyptian border. Libya later became a Roman possession, until it was conquered by the Vandals in AD 455. After a re-conquest by Byzantium in the following century, the region was won by the Arabs under Amr ibn al-As in 643.

Ruled successively by the Umayyads, Fatimids, and a Berber dynasty, the country was partly conquered by the Normans in 1146 but soon abandoned to Almohad control. During the following centuries Libya, or parts thereof, frequently changed hands until it was finally conquered, in the 16th century, by the Ottoman Empire.

In the 19th century the puritanical Sanusi sect arose in the interior. The Sanusi led the resistance to the Italians, who began their conquest of Libya in 1911. The Ottomans renounced their rights over Libya in 1912, but the Sanusi resisted until 1931.

During World War II (1939-1945), Libya was the scene of intense desert fighting between Italo-German and Allied forces. Following the expulsion of Axis troops in 1943, France and Britain shared control of the country. On November 21, 1949, the United Nations General Assembly approved a resolution calling for the granting of independence to Libya by January 1, 1952.

A national assembly, composed of an equal number of delegates from Cyrenaica, Tripolitania, and Fezzan, convened at Tripoli in 1950 and designated Emir Sayid Idris al-Sanusi, head of the Cyrenaican government and leader of the Sanusi sect, king-designate. The assembly promulgated the Libyan constitution on October 7, 1951. On December 24 the emir, as King Idris I, proclaimed the independence of the federal United Kingdom of Libya. Elections were held in February 1952, and parliament met for the first time in March. Libya joined the Arab League in 1953 and the United Nations (UN) in 1955. In 1963 the constitution was amended to give women the right to vote, and the federal system was replaced by a unitary system.

Britain and France agreed to extend financial aid to the government in exchange for the right to maintain their military installations in Libya. The United States, wishing to retain the vast Wheelus Field air base near Tripoli, promised economic and technical assistance. Libya established diplomatic relations with the USSR in 1956 but rejected Soviet offers of economic aid. In 1964 negotiations were begun between Libya and the United States and Britain for the withdrawal of troops and the closing of air bases. The last contingents of British and U.S. troops left in 1970.

Libya was not a participant in the 1967 Six-Day War between Israel and neighboring Arab countries, but it strongly supported its Arab League neighbors in opposition to Israel after the war. Libya also gave financial aid to Jordan and the United Arab Republic, as Egypt was then called, to rebuild their economies.

Beginning in the mid-1950s, development of the oil industry made rapid progress and turned Libya into a boom country. In 1956 the Libyan government granted two American oil companies a concession of some 5,668,000 hectares (14 million acres). In 1961 King Idris opened a 167-km (104-mi) pipeline linking important oil fields in the interior to the Mediterranean Sea. The new facility made possible the export of Libyan oil for the first time. In the same year a royal decree provided that in future agreements with oil companies the government share of the profits would be increased from 50 percent to 70 percent. In the late 1960s numerous oil companies of various nations had been granted concessions, and oil production reached more than 85 million barrels per month.

A new era in the history of Libya began on September 1, 1969, when a group of young army officers overthrew the royal government and established a republic under the name Libyan Arab Republic.

The revolutionary government, dominated by Colonel Muammar al-Qaddafi, a devout Muslim aspiring to leadership of the Arab world, showed a determination thereafter to play a larger role in the affairs of the Middle East and North Africa. Representatives of Libya engaged in discussions with Egypt and the Sudan on plans for the coordination of economic, military, and political policies of the three countries. In September 1971, Egypt, Libya, and Syria agreed to form a federation designed for mutual military advantage against Israel. This and a later agreement to form a union with Tunisia were abandoned in 1974.

In internal affairs the new government decreed that all businesses must in the future be wholly owned by Libyans; all banks were nationalized. Agreement was reached with foreign-owned oil companies that increased Libya’s annual oil revenues by $770 million at that time. In the early 1970s, however, Libya also nationalized the oil resources of the country. Even before the Arab-Israeli War of 1973, Qaddafi urged his fellow Arabs to refuse to trade in oil, so vital to the industrialized countries of the West, with any nation supporting Israel. After the war Libya joined in an embargo of oil sales to the West and urged higher prices to the oil-consuming countries.

Some material is from the Microsoft ® Encarta ® Reference Library 2003. © 1993-2002 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Practical Matters

Weather
Libya has two distinct climates: Mediterranean coastal climate and interior desert. The high temperatures in the desert can be a scorching 50’C, or 120’F! In the desert the evening temperatures drop to a more comfortable range of 70’F – 80’F. The coastal temperatures remain fairly constant in the mid-80’s and low 70’s for the evening. Winter temperatures on the coast remain moderate while the desert ranges from temperatures in the 80s and 90s during the day to below freezing at night.

What to Wear
Dress for the heat: light cottons, breathable materials, protection from sun. Libya is a Muslim country and the general dress code is conservative. Women are not required to be covered, but should still dress conservatively and men should not wear shorts except at the beach or in the desert. A hat and sunglasses are a necessity.

Electricity
Libyan Electricity service uses standard 240V power system. But please note that adapter plug sizes might vary, it is advised that you bring an international adapter with you.

Business Hours
Weekends are Thursday and Friday. Libyan hours of business are from 7:00 am to 2:00 p.m. (summer) and 8:00 am to 4:00 p.m. (winter). Private business and shops operate differently and are usually open late. If traveling in Ramadan (the Islamic Holy month), the working habits are changed, businesses are usually opened after sunset.

Communication, Post, News
The postal and telecommunications systems of Libya are government owned and operated. Radio communications link the interior with the coastal regions. In 1997 there were an estimated 259 radio receivers and 140 television sets for every 1,000 Libyans. Libya’s 4 daily newspapers, including Al-Fajr al-Jadid, which is published in Tripoli, had a circulation of 71,000 in 1996.

Money
The Libyan Dinar is the standard currency and is divided into 1,000 dirhams, which are called Dinar. Notes are issued in denominations of 20, 10, 5, 1, .5, and .25. Coins are 25 - 10 and 05 dirhams, but are rarely used these days. There are also many banks in all the major cities, and you can always make exchanges at any of them. Credit Cards are not used in Libya (rumor has it that they will be introduced to the major hotels and banks very soon).

Cash machines are not available so be prepared to exchange your money upon arrival or at an exchange bureau or bank, or your hotel. Travelers checks are also not conveniently exchanged, so it is best to bring cash.

Photography
All sites in Libya charge, in addition to the entrance fee, a camera or video camera fee. This usually is $5 and $10 respectively. These fees have been included in your tour package, however, you should be aware of them. Photographing anything related to the military or police is forbidden and could result in the confiscation of your camera. Photography individuals should only be done with their permission. It will be quite likely you will receive that permission when you ask, but on occasion your request will be declined. Please respect this and do not photograph the person.

Food
Libya is not known for its cuisine, however, there is a wide variety available to travelers, of varying budgets and quality. Couscous and chicken are popular, and camel meat is readily available in the south, sometimes with rice replacing the couscous in the eastern coastal region. There are also Italian style pasta dishes (remember much of Libya was an Italian colony at one time!), and vegetable stews and potatoes are easy to find as well. Below are listed some traditional dishes cooked in the typical Libyan home, but not always found in restaurants.

Osban: A sheep’s stomach cleaned and filled with rice, herbs, kidney, liver or other meats, and steamed or boiled in a sauce. This is the Libyan version of haggis and probably will only appeal to the adventurous eater.

Rishda: Lightly spiced vermicelli noodles with chickpeas, tomatoes and caramelized onions.

Tajeen: This is a favorite throughout North Africa and consists of meat (in this case most likely lamb) and vegetables in a tomato sauce flavored with paprika.

Aysh: Unleavened bread similar to bazin, but softer

Bazin: Unleavened bread made from barley6 and flout but without sugar. Often served with soup or fish.

Bseesa: Bread made from seeds crushed to flour consistency and mixed with oil, usually eaten for breakfast with tea.

Fitaat: Lentils, mutton, and buckwheat pancakes cooked together in a sauce, eaten with the hands and served in a communal pot or serving dish.

Metruda: Oven baked bread chopped into smaller chunks while still warm then mixed with milk, honey, dates, and butter, yummmm!

Zumeita: Bread made from wheat and small yellow seeds.

Taajeelah: Tuareg bread made with flour, water and salt. They start by burning a fire for a while, then clear it away to get to the hot sand underneath. The dough is placed in the center then covered and allowed to cook for about 15 minutes or so, then it is uncovered, turned over and covered again with hot sand to finish baking. The bread is best when still warm.

Packing Tips
Here are some general guidelines for packing for a Caravan-Serai Tour. We have partnered with Travel Smith, a catalog and online retailer of travel clothing and accessories. Their products are ideal for travel: lightweight and easy to pack, wrinkle resistant, easy to care for, comfortable, and versatile. As a Caravan-Serai client, you can receive a 10% discount off your purchase. If you did not receive a catalog from us with a KEY CODE on the cover, call us for the code and shop online.

First and foremost be comfortable! Pack clothes that can be worn in layers and colors that allow you to mix and match. Note that in many holy sites shorts and sleeveless outfits are not permitted. Consider the following ideas when you pack:

Clothing:
· Your favorite pair of comfortable, sturdy, walking shoes: many of our tours include exploring ruins, walking on unpaved or uneven streets, and sand. You can bring another pair of shoes or sandals for days when there won’t be much walking or for the beach.
· Warm sweater: in the winter months, it can get chilly, especially at night
· Casual pants or jeans: lightweight cotton pants are preferable to jeans, especially in the warm season. Jeans are bulky, hot, and don’t hand wash and dry well at all.
· Cotton shirts: breathable, quick-drying shirts are the best.
· Windbreaker or raincoat, rain hat and small umbrella: in the winter months it can rain, especially in coastal areas. If you do choose to bring an umbrella, keep it compact.
· Swim suit
· Scarf - for entering into a Mosque
Electrical Appliances:
· Converter and Adapter plugs
· The electric current in the Middle East is 220 volts. To operate small American appliances such as a hair dryer or curling iron you will need both a Converter and Adapter Plugs. Most hotels will have a hair drier either in the room or in housekeeping that you can borrow.
· Travel alarm clock
· Travel hair drier
Other necessities:
· Day pack
· Camera, film, extra battery and journal
· Travel first aid kit
· Anti-diarrhea medicine, pain reliever, etc…
· Sun Protection: sunscreen, sun glasses, hat

Places To Visit

Tripoli
Tripoli, or Tarabalus Al-Gharb (Tripoli of the West in Arabic), is the major city and capital of Libya. The climate of Tripoli is Mediterranean with hot dry summers, cool winters and some modest rainfall. Weather can be variable, influenced by the Sahara Desert and the Mediterranean Sea, which moderates daily temperature ranges.

The old walled city of Tripoli, the Medina, is one of the classical sites of the Mediterranean. The basic street plan was laid down in the Roman period when the walls were constructed on the landward sides against attacks from the interior of Tripolitania. The high walls survived many invasions, each conqueror restoring the damage done. In the 8th century the Muslim ruler built a wall on the sea-facing side of the city. Three great gates gave access to the town, Bab Zanata on the west, Bab Hawara on the south east and Bab Al-Bahr in the north wall.

The castle, Al-Saraya Al-Hamra, occupies a site known to be pre-Roman in the east quadrant of the old city and still dominates the skyline of Tripoli. Any tour of the old city should begin at the castle, entered from the land side near Suq Al-Mushir. It houses a library and a well-organized museum and has excellent views over the city from the walls. The Castle Museum is essentially concerned with the archaeology and ancient history of Libya. It covers the Phoenician, Greek and Roman periods well and has an expanding collection of materials on the Islamic period.

The old city has several key elements worth visiting. The old city walls are still standing and can be climbed. The Harbor Monument stands at the gates of the old city on the edge of the former corniche road adjacent to the castle. There are a number of restored houses, consulates and a synagogue in the narrow streets of the old city.

There are a number of interesting mosques including the Karamanli Mosque, the En-Naqah Mosque and the Gurgi Mosque both in the old town and adjacent to it. The best known of the Tripoli mosques is the Gurgi Mosque with its elegant architecture. It was built comparatively recently in 1833 by Yussef Gurgi.

Modern Tripoli spilled out from the tight confines of the old city as early as the 18th century and possibly before that. The main commercial streets lie in the center. Most lead off Green Square in front of the castle. All street names are in Arabic but Libyans will assist in giving directions. Walking around Tripoli center is straight forward. For a tour of the modern city on foot begin in Green Square and travel West along Sharah Omar Mukhtar to see the private business district. Turn round at the Tripoli Fair building and return to Green Square from which go due South down Sharah Mohammed Magarief towards the post office and former cathedral. From the post office square (Maidan Al-Jaza'er) either turn directly right to Sharah Tahiti and thence right again into one of the commercial thorough-fares with small Arab lock-up shops or go on past the post office towards the People's Palace and thence right to the harbor front and back towards the Green Square. This itinerary shows the best if the modern city.

Benghazi
Situated on the eastern edge of the Gulf of Sirte, Benghazi ranks as the second largest city in Libya and a major commercial center. The city today displays little of its ancient heritage, as it was pretty much pummeled into ruin during WWII. Benghazi makes a great base for exploring the lush Green Mountain area and the numerous Roman ruins along the coast, and there are good bathing beaches within a quick drive.

The main covered market, the Souq al-Jreed on Sharia Omar al-Mukhtar, sells all types of clothing and household goods, while not far off the street becomes a pedestrian precinct or small shops and cafes.

Sabha
Deep in the interior is Fezzan, home of the finest natural gallery of prehistoric rock are in Africa. Sabha is the largest oasis and the major city in the Fezzan Region. It is situated in the middle of the desert where visitors may spend an enjoyable time in a quiet and peaceful atmosphere between golden sand dunes, green palm trees, clear water springs and the ancient ruins and civilization that surround it.

The modern city of Sabha may be reached via a modern highway network across the desert or by air from Tripoli and Benghazi. It is built on the ruins of an ancient city where past civilizations such as that of the Garmantes thrived. Their drawings and engravings on the rocks of the Akakus mountains and their earliest artifacts date back to the first millennium B.C., telling the story of the great original Libyan civilization that flourished in this part of the country.

Further north, across the sand-sea and the huge dunes one reaches the magnificent oasis of Gabroun which has been restored in order to cater for travelers. The original inhabitants, the Dawada, also known as the "Worm Eaters" have now moved to an area closer to the highway.

Leptis Magna
Leptis Magna is among the most complete magnificent of the 3 main ancient settlements (tripolis) of North Africa. It began as a Phoenician port of call on the trading route across the region, though it was ultimately administered in the 6th century BC, it is thought, from Carthage. The city grew up at the mouth of the Wadi Lebda where a small port was developed over the years, exporting important volumes of grain and olives. It joined Rome in 111 BC and enjoyed full rights to Roman citizenship under the Emperor Trajan (98-117 AD).

The early Roman period saw the construction of basic harbor works and a forum close by the original Punic settlement. The city flourished under the rule of and patronage of Septimus Severus (193-211 AD) who was born in Leptis Magna. Most of the major buildings at Leptis date from his time. The city spread along the coast and inland. All the important buildings can be reached adjacent to or just off the main paved monumental road from the present entrance through the new parts of the site.

A full inspection of the wealth of monuments requires at least a full day and rather longer for visitors with a specialist interest since Leptis Magna is well preserved and has an unequalled range of buildings from the classical period.

Although now a UNESCO World Heritage site, few tourists get to see the wonders of this site in person.

Germa
The ruins of Germa are located in Southern Libya, 160 KM South-West of Sabha. It was founded by the Garamantes, who belonged to a large Libyan tribe, experienced in desert traveling. The ancient Libyans, who used the feathers as their symbol, recorded their first battles and wars by engraving them on the rocks of the area. The importance of the area as a trade link between Central Africa and the Mediterranean was similarly recorded, as were beautifully executed war chariots and horse carts.

In Germa, ancient houses, temples and baths carry the distinguished designs of the different civilizations that existed in this land: ancient Egyptian, Carthaginian, Greek and Roman. Other ruins in Germa suggest civilizations in the area dating back to 5000 BC, such as that of Acacus, as evidenced by the colored drawings in the nearby mountains.

The Garamantes, with the help of their neighboring tribes, resisted the Roman influence. Their armies reached the fringes of Leptis Magna, hundreds of kilometers to the North. Peaceful relations were not realized until the end of the 2nd century AD, at the time of Libyan born Emperor Septimius Severus (193 - 211 AD).

The museum in Tripoli (Al Matthaf Al Jamahiri) exhibits the various masterpieces and collections discovered in the area, where the earliest finds date back to the first millennium BC

Ghadames
Once upon a time deep in the Sahara an ancient city lived under a spell defended by high walls and tens of triangular rooftop crenellations. A deep silence held in the narrow streets, the caravans from remote Sudan no longer came. The story could continue with cliches of white robed figures and hot winds blowing over the oasis. The desert ghost town, Ghadames is real enough however famous among architecture lovers as a place perfectly adapted to a harsh environment.

Ghadames is 640 km southwest of Tripoli. There are at least two buses a day from Tripoli, passing via Nalut. Ghadames is very much the legendary oasis town, even though the population has moved out of the labyrinthine old town into new modern housing areas. Exploring the town and oasis is a pleasant day, and with four wheel drive could do a day trip out to the dunes.

Located close the point where the international frontiers of Libya, Algeria and Tunisia join, modern Ghadames has an estimated population of around 10,000. The residential area is divided into the old and new towns. The old town is situated within the oasis whereas the new town has been built on the dry slopes above the oasis. The old town has been uninhabited since 1986, however the old town has not been completely abandoned and still plays an important role in the life of the inhabitants. On the hottest days of the summer, the inhabitants of the new city return to their original quarters in search of shade and cool.

Tourism is gaining importance and Ghadames now has a three-day tourist festival held annually in October to coincide with the date harvest. There are displays of local traditions and horsemanship.

From a difficult natural environment, the old Ghadames created perfect living conditions for an isolated settlement in a harsh natural environment. The houses, built of bricks, lime, palm tree trunks and fronds - the only available building materials - are elegant and practical. Built on two stories they have a central room of the first floor acting as a kind of courtyard with all the rooms leading off it. The rooms are lit by an ingenious hole in the high ceiling letting in sunlight that reflects off the white walls and provides sufficient illumination. The upper floors are supported by palm tree trunks covered with fronds and mud.

Sahara
Further south, the horizon melts into the immense desert of dunes and mirages. The breathtaking scenery is enough to thrill any explorer. The great Libyan Sahara desert is one of the last real wildernesses on the planet earth. In the 19th century, when explorers first began to cross the Sahara, no journey was considered more hazardous. Today with the benefit of modern vehicles, it is comparatively safe but just as exciting, and destinations that used to take days to reach now take only a few hours.

The oases are havens of calm and tranquility where you can enjoy an abundance of water and shade amongst the palms, in a gorgeous setting. They are the islands in the great sand sea. Stay at the beautiful oasis town of Ghadames - the southernmost outpost of Roman times - famed for its unique desert architecture and its social structure, beyond which the dunes stretch for thousands of miles.

Follow the ancient Saharan trade route to Ghat - a Tuareg city deep in the south of Libya. Explore the stunning landscapes of the Tadrart and Akakus mountains, where hidden in the valleys and wadis you will find one of the richest and most extraordinary "collections" of cave paintings in the world.

Continue trekking overland to Germa, the site of Libya's ancient capital, where the earliest finds date back to the 1st millennium BC. The Garamantes were renowned as warriors, who drove chariots drawn by four horses, and masters of the desert routes. Head north across the sand sea and take the opportunity to camp at the oasis of Gabraoun. Although the original occupants, the Dawada - otherwise known as the "worm-eaters" - have now moved on, the area has been beautifully restored to accommodate travelers.

The Libyan desert is full of character, culture and simple pleasures. It is a wonderful and unique world. Vast horizons, variety and adventure are the keynotes of life in the Sahara.

Ghat
Set in the heart of Fezzan, a region crossed by caravans that from Sudan headed towards the Mediterranean, Ghat was favored by its strategic position and an ancient time of over a thousand years ago, was a vibrant city, flourishing on trade and blessed with a kind and clement nature, which with its ample lakes and savannah-like vegetation, was a haven for hunters and farmers. Ghat is guarded by the Akakus mountains and has grown around its oasis and enwraps it in an intricate web of alleys and houses, tightly intertwined to ensure a long, cool, uninterrupted shadow.

The Tuareg, slender figures of lapislazzuli and cobalt on their ivory mehari pedestals, those white, enchanted, camels that come to life when the sun lights up the golden satin of the dunes. The elegant figures are animated by the sound of an invisible musical box which, during the Festival that is held in Ghat towards the end of December, accompanies the ritual dances and the complex figurative movements of these people that has become legendary presence in the immensity of the desert.

It is a breathless moment when suddenly there is a glimpse of Lake Mandara, one of the many lakes that make up the Ramlat Daouada and Ramlat Zallaf, which shine like delicate jade against the silken velvet dunes of the Adhane Ubari.

Germa, the ancient capital of Fezzan, flourished in Ghat. Here, in the valley dominated by the mountain range of Messak Settafet, lived the Garamants, an ancient people of shepherds and farmers, but above all warriors who originated from Tibesti. The flashes of vegetation that brighten the ruins of Germa testify to the immense resources of fossil water deposited in a prehistoric age, when this area was moist enough to support the growth of a rich vegetation.

Sabratha
The city of Sabratha is located on the Mediterranean coast, one-hour drive west of Tripoli. It was founded by the Canaanites in the 6th century BC. A Phoenician trading-post that served as an outlet for the products of the African hinterland, Sabratha was part of the short-lived Numidian kingdom of Massinissa before being Romanized and rebuilt in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD

Like Leptis Magna, Sabratha began as a settlement to service the coastal trade of the Carthaginians. It was developed as a permanent site in the 4th century BC to act as a terminal for the trans-Saharan trade since it had a natural harbor on an otherwise long and contiguous coastline poor in natural harbors. The site was later to become one of the 3 major cities with Leptis and Oea (Tripoli).

Sabratha prospered in the third century AD as a trading place for the Ivory coming from central Africa, through Ghadames and Fezzan. The Vandals who invaded North Africa from Europe abandoned it after its destruction. In 533 AD the Byzantines occupied the city and rebuilt most of it noticeably, the church of Justinian with its fine decorated mosaic floors.

Amongst the walls and foundations of public buildings discovered in the city, are the market, tribunal and some temples. The most prominent features of the city during Roman times are the public arenas, the Temples of Liber Pater, Sirapis, Isis, and Hercules, the forum, the theatre, the tribunal arena, and the public paths. Ruins of the earliest Phoenician settlements have been found beneath the Roman town in the area between the forum and the Sea.

The main monument is the Amphitheatre, used in modern times as a theatre and concert hall. There is a variety of public baths, temples and fountains, with many first class mosaics both on site and in the adjacent Museum. Some Byzantine remains are on show to exemplify the revival after the Vandal invasions. Sabratha is also a UNESCO World Heritage site.

General Tips On Etiquette

People who are traveling in the Middle East can often be lucky enough to be invited to meet the locals socially. Many are worried about the local "etiquette".

First of all, don't be! You will invariably be judged on your intentions rather than on your actual manners. If it is obvious that you are well meaning, then almost any "gaffe" will be overlooked. If you behave as you would at home, then in general you will be welcomed on your own terms.

However, here are some do's, some don'ts and some explanations: as I say, it is not obligatory to follow them, but this is how anybody knowing a bit about the culture would behave.

When you are introduced: if you are a man you can shake hands with another man without hesitation. Similarly, if you are a woman you can shake hands with another woman. Note that women who know each other or who feel friendly towards each other usually greet each other by several "cheek kisses". You may well find that she shakes your hand at the beginning of the meeting and says goodbye with a kiss. That's fine, and means that your encounter was successful!
Men should wait for an Arab woman to offer her hand and women should similarly wait for an Arab man to offer his. Many women prefer to avoid touching a man they do not know well. Many men, but especially older men, avoid touching a woman at all if she is not related to them, in that case they may offer an elbow (!) which you should try to shake more or less as if it was a hand. I know that this sounds funny, but do it anyhow! A man may also have washed in preparation for prayer: in that case he would avoid touching a woman before praying, whereas another time he is quite happy to offer his hand.

Don't be offended at the number of personal questions that everybody asks. "How old are you?" "what's your job?" "are you married?" "where's your husband/wife?" "do you have any children?" followed either by "How old are they?" or "Why not?"

If you offer anybody a present from your own country, you can be quite certain that they will ask how much it cost. This again is not considered rude. You don't necessarily have to be absolutely truthful when answering!

Drinking tea: this is all over! It is polite to accept a second glass: if you don't want it, then you should smile and have a reason for not accepting ("I've been drinking tea all day, I shall have a problem tonight!" is usually very successful, it brings smiles of understanding). You can refuse a third glass if you want to, put your glass back on the tray, and when somebody prepares to pour you some more, place your hand palm down flat over the top of the glass.

If you are offered coffee by anybody Bedouin related, in which I include the whole population of south Jordan, you should "shake the cup" when you give it back. Not doing so is considered to mean that you want some more! Just tilt it two or three times, slightly and quickly from side to side, holding it between finger and thumb.

Note that a good "out" to almost any invitation is "please forgive me, I am dead tired, I must go somewhere and sleep!" This is accepted by everybody I have ever met, the invitation might turn into "why don't you sleep here?" but it is easier to get out of this one - and just occasionally it might be accepted with gratitude.

When you arrive somewhere in response to an invitation or at an official reception of any kind (in which I include weddings and so forth), you will probably be greeted by a senior member of the household (or as senior as is free at that particular moment), offering you coffee. In this case, the coffee is very strong and bitter, and is just a few drops in the bottom of a handleless cup. Drink it down in one gulp (yes, I know it's also very hot!) and hand back the cup, shaking it as described above. Later, you will probably be offered "normal" coffee, but this is the welcome to the household. Very occasionally you might meet this welcome ritual in a hotel. Behave in exactly the same way, and try not to sneer at all the tourists who don't know how to react to this offer of coffee!

If you are invited to visit a house for a meal or just for tea, here is the usual procedure: first of all, a lot depends on the social status of the household and how accustomed they are to receiving westerners. As usual, I am giving you the simpler households, largely Bedouin inspired. For the higher status households, western standards pretty much apply.

If you are invited for a meal, one usually takes a small gift for the household. Flowers are a good idea, but you can't always get them - if you do find any, then remember that you should take an ODD number and not an even dozen. You could also take dried flowers or artificial ones, the latter are pretty cheap so take a nice bunch, and present them like fresh flowers. Chocolates, biscuits or Arab pastries are also very acceptable. Remember that it is not really polite to take something that the household would consider as being very expensive - (see lower down) - ask the shopkeeper if in doubt, explain the position.

I admit that here I have suggested rather uninteresting gifts, but these are the "safe" ones. Somebody who knows the household might take something a bit more adventurous that he/she knows would be liked, but if I were you I should play safe!

The usual way to offer a gift like this is to hand it over as inconspicuously and as soon as you possibly can, even to the person who opens the door or to one of the children. Just mutter deprecatingly "this is for the house" or something similar. You may feel that the thanks you receive are scanty or downright inadequate. Don't be offended, this is normal. However much your gift is appreciated you are unlikely to receive more than a polite thank you. Don't be upset, the host or hostess might be absolutely delighted without ever saying more than the equivalent of "very nice".

In many households the residents commonly take off their shoes when entering, but this does vary a lot. You can pretty well know the position by looking at the outside of the front door: if a lot of shoes are lying around, this means take them off. Wear slip on shoes or sandals in case. As a general rule, if there is a carpet, you should offer to remove them, if the host says, don't bother, then don't bother - unless, of course, you see your hostess glaring behind his back! You will also see if the household in general is barefoot. If you need to use the bathroom, sandals will be offered, you should wear them in the bathroom only.

If you are invited to a meal, then very often the eldest son (or daughter if you are sitting with the ladies) will bring around a jug of water, which he/she will pour over your hand or hands. There will be a basin to catch the water, soap is usually available if wanted, and a towel will be offered immediately. This saves getting up to wash. If you are accustomed to eating with your hands, then offer the right hand only to be washed. Most people offer two hands anyway. However, when eating, of course use only the right hand. Almost certainly a spoon will be offered, don't hesitate to accept it. Everybody may eat from a common plate, take the food immediately opposite to you only. Somebody will certainly pile up "your" sector with the choicest pieces, eat what you can. You may be urged on with the friendly command "kul", as in eat up! Try to be neither the first nor the last to finish eating, it is a good idea to take small spoonfuls and eat slowly. When you are full, say so (pat your tummy and say you couldn't fit in another crumb!). Add a compliment or two and everybody will be pleased (no need to burp!) In general water is offered only at the end of the meal, there might be a common glass here as well, so drink it down quickly and hand the glass back! When people have finished eating, they will usually get up immediately to wash hands and mouth, without waiting for everybody else to finish. If this happens when you are still eating, then take your time! After that, everybody lies back on the cushions, the men will get out cigarettes and the conversation will begin.
Note: In Arab countries it is not common for a man to ask permission to smoke in the presence of a woman. However he WILL ask permission if he wants to drink alcohol when you are there. You can be pretty sure he won't do that in front of his parents, though, whatever his age!

After a meal, coffee will be served, probably tea also after a short interval, or perhaps soft drinks. After this, you should offer to leave; you will be pressed to stay, it is for you to decide how sincere this is - roughly base yourself on how animated the conversation has been, how much you are enjoying yourself, how much you think THEY are enjoying themselves, plus various imponderables which you will recognize - exactly for what reason you received the invitation etc. In general, an invitation to supper is not necessarily an invitation to spend the evening.

The women of the household: If you are part of a couple, they are unlikely to appear, the same if there are men from outside the household present. If you are a woman alone, they MIGHT put in an appearance, and in any case it would be perfectly proper to ask if you could thank them for the meal. However it would not be rude not to do so.

If you are seated on the ground (almost certain if you are visiting the Bedouin), remember that it is downright insulting to point the bare sole of your foot towards anybody. Most people sit cross-legged, and it is a good idea to cultivate this habit! You will see that when they want to stretch out their legs they usually cover their feet with a blanket or towel.

I invariably have with me, folded in my bag, a large headscarf, useful for all kinds of purposes, and in this particular case to drop over my feet.

An interesting point when visiting with the Bedouin concerns the widespread Western misconception of "hospitality". I am not implying that it is not perfectly genuine but the Bedouin tradition requires the guest to provide something in return. The host has the privilege of determining the level of this exchange, which is why I said earlier that it is not considered polite to take too expensive a gift when invited to a house. However, even a glass of tea drunk in a Bedouin tent really calls for some sort of return. It can perfectly well take the form of sweets for the children for instance, chewing gum or some sort of small toy, or a packet of cigarettes. If you have some fruit with you it would be welcomed eagerly. In all these cases, even (or especially) the cigarettes (!) offer the gift to the WOMEN. If you have nothing at all to offer, then you can always produce a few dinars, they will ABSOLUTELY NOT be taken for any sort of insult. If you are hesitant about this, then give them to your host/hostess murmuring that they should "buy something for the children".

If a guide has taken you to the Bedouin tent in question, he will be prepared to take care of this. However, if YOU take the initiative, it will be much approved by everybody as showing that you know how to behave! You may well find that your guide treats you quite differently afterwards. You do have the option of consulting him on exactly what to give and to whom, and the same applies if you are invited to something a bit more elaborate when in his company, or in that of any local.

As I say, the level of the hospitality offered should really determine the level of the return gift; a lavish supper calls for much more than would a simple glass of tea. This advice is not to be taken to extremes; a Bedouin will happily entertain somebody he considers a friend without thinking for a second of any return. But I do suggest that you bear the general idea in mind and remember that a casual guest or a tourist arriving on an impromptu "visit" is not at all the same as an invited personal friend. It is not a bad idea to have something always with you that can be used in these cases: I once heard somebody say that they always took several spare cheapish watches with them, so that they could take one off their wrist and offer it as a "present" if the situation seemed to require it. A very good idea.

The way to address people: the usual formal/polite/friendly way of speaking to somebody is to call them "Mother" or "Father" of (insert the name of the eldest son, or the daughter if there are no sons). The Arabic is for instance "Um Mohammed" (mother of Mohammed) or "Abu Mohammed" (father of Mohammed). It is not rude to address people by their first names, but usually this is done (contradictorily - how very Arab!) either by people who know them very well or by those who know them scarcely at all.

Some people may be addressed as "Hadji" (often shortened to "Hadj"') or "Hadja". If you know their first name you can use it as well: "Hadji Haroun", "Hadja Maryam". This signifies that they have made the Haj, or pilgrimage, to Mecca.

Dress code: A woman should normally wear fairly loose-fitting clothes and cover her upper arms, as well as her shoulders and her knees. Oddly enough, this can be more important than covering her head. Muslims know and accept that non-Muslims go about with the head uncovered, but the rest of it comes under the category of "modesty" and it truly isn't a good idea to be considered immodest.

Men should also dress conservatively, except perhaps on tourist sites, or of course on the beach. You will practically never see an Arab wearing shorts at any other time. It is considered fairly indecent to wear shorts to go shopping, for instance. People probably won't actually SAY anything, or at least not to you, but it isn't pleasant to think about what they might be saying to each other. Short-sleeved shirts are perfectly acceptable, but bare chests in public places are not.

Religions In The Middle East

Man’s civilization dawned in the Middle East and three monotheistic religions emerged there. Following is a brief description of Judaism, Christianity and Islam as much as is needed to be observed by tourists.

Judaism: God revealed to Moses the 10 Commandments on Mount St. Cathrine in Sinai but he was not permitted to enter the Holy Land. King Solomon built the first temple which was destroyed by the Babylonians. The First and Second Jewish Temples were built on the mount, which now is occupied by the Dome of the Rock and the Agsa Mosgue. The Babylonians destroyed the Second Temple. Jews believe that the old retaining wall on the Mount, which is called the Western or Wailing Wall, is part of the Temple. Archaeologists have reconstructed a model of the Second Temple, which you might visit. Synagogues of the Jewish people can be found throughout Israel and Palestine. We know of no special protocols for visiting Jewish synagogues that you need to observe, however from Friday at sundown until Saturday at sundown the Sabbath, or day of rest, is observed, and visitors to Jewish houses of worship may not be welcome during that time.

A respect for all religions and the people practicing them is requested from people enjoying our tours. If you have any further questions, please do not hesitate to ask us.

Christianity: Jordan, Israel and Palestine are territories of Christianity. Jerusalem, Nazareth, Bethlehem, and the Jordan Valley are principal destinations. Approximately 5% of Palestinians and Jordanians are Christians. Churches can be found throughout all the countries in the area. Syria has many famous Christian churches, and you can even hear Aramaic, the language of Christ, spoken in Ma’alula in Syria and by Orthodox Jews in Jerusalem. Since Christian protocol remains essentially the same in the Middle East as the United States, behavior rules are the same in both places.

Islam: For Muslims (Moslems), God revealed his eternal truths in Arabic through the Prophet Muhammad (Mohammed), 570-632AD, who lived in what is today Saudi Arabia. The revelations were collected as the Qu’ran (Koran). Muslims believe that the Prophet Muhammad was transported in a miraculous journey from Mecca (in modern Saudi Arabia) to Jerusalem to Heaven and then home. The Dome of the Rock commemorates the spot where he rose to Heaven and returned. After the Prophet’s death, Islam was spread by his followers and eventually encompassed an area from Bosnia to southern Russia, east to China, and south to the Philippines, and west via North Africa to Spain. We therefore can find mosques (houses of worship) throughout the world as well throughout the Middle East. Many Christian churches have been converted into mosques. Some prominent examples are in Aya Sofia in Istanbul, and the Omayyad Mosque in Damascus.

When visiting a mosque, be prepared to leave your shoes with the doorkeeper. It is not necessary to tip him. Women wear a scarf to cover the hair when entering a mosque. Black and white scarves are common, but any subdued color may be used. Prayers may be in session and quiet respect is expected. Hearing the prayers chanted could be a thrilling experience. Muslims pray five times a day and they wash before praying but this is not required of visitors.

Islam follows a lunar calendar of 12 months a year, which is shorter than the solar year by eleven days. The holiest month is Ramadan (pr. Ra-ma-dan), strict Moslems fast during the hours between daybreak and sunset, and eat between sunset and daybreak. During the fast, Muslims abstain from eating, drinking, and smoking during daylight hours. Breaking the fast at the end of the day is an important event. Visitors are not expected to observe the fast, but in consideration for those who do, please refrain from smoking or eating during the hours of the fast in public during Ramadan. You may plan to eat in hotels and restaurants as desired.

What To Buy In Libya

Bargaining is non-existent in Libya and shops all have fixed prices.

Tuareg crafts are good souvenirs of your visit to Libya and the desert. In the Fezzan look for their handmade leather goods and silver spread on a blanket near the lakes and campgrounds. A unique item is the croix d’Agadez, a talisman against the evil eye, with designs differing between villages. Other Tuareg jewelry includes necklaces, bracelets, amulets, and ceremonial daggers with leather hilts. If it contains amber it may have come from across the border in Niger, but was made by Tuareg there and brought to Libya on their travels. Leather items include tasseled tobacco pouches, saddlebags, and cushions.

Other local crafts include carpets and rugs of the flat-weave kilim style, pottery, woven palm products. Also, oils, spices and essences are good buys. You will also see many goods that have come from other North African countries such as Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, and Egypt.

The Arabic Language in Libya

The language of Libya is Arabic. Classical Arabic is used in all official correspondence, newspapers, and TV news; however, it is rarely spoken “on the street”. Colloquial (local dialect) Arabic is the spoken language and varies from country to country. For example, in North Africa other languages, such as Berber, French, and Italian influence the dialect. In Egypt, the accent and pronunciation is changed. Therefore, spoken communication can be difficult between people from different countries, however with the number of Egyptian and Tunisian workers in Libya, and the popularity of Egyptian cinema, the differences are lessened.

Arabic is read from right to left. We list below some common expressions in Arabic.

ah-len wa sah-len: formal greeting
marhaba: hello
ma sa-laa-ma: good-bye (“Go in Peace”)
sa-bah al hair: good morning
sa-bah-an-noor: good morning – response
kee-fik: how are you (feminine)
kee-fak: how are you (masculine)
nam: yes
la: no
shu-kran: thank you
af-wan: you’re welcome
wain___?: where is_____?
wain ha-mmam?: where is the bathroom?
kit-eer gha-li: too expensive
ah-roo-h he-nak___: I want to go___
dok-tor: doctor
bi kam?: How much?

Numbers
1. wa-hid
2. ith-nain
3. tha-la-tha
4. ar-baa
5. kham-sa
6. sit-tah
7. sa-ba-ah
8. tha-man-I-ah
9. tis-sah
10. ah-sha-ra

The Arabic Alphabet

alif	beh	teh	theh	jim	ha	kha
dal	dhal	ra	zin	sin	shin	sad
dad	ta	dha	ain	ghain	feh	qaf
kaf	lam	mim	nun	heh	waw	yeh

Music in the Arab World

Arab Music is a unique form of music heard in Arab countries from the Gulf to the Meghreb. Traditional or Classic Arab music is performed by acoustic instruments. In recent years electric instruments which can produce quartertones have been introduced.

Arab music scales are not chromatic like the major and minor scales used in occidental music. It is the quartertone, which makes this music so unique and expandable. Because of this quality, Arab music has a variety of scales unfamiliar to the Western ear. These scales represent a mode, a human emotion, or a feeling. Some are suitable for morning listening, some for late night. These scales are called Maqaams (positions). Some of the common Maqaams are Hijaz, Bayaat, Saba, Siga and Kurd, and most Arabic songs utilize several Maqaam to express the various emotions introduced in the poetry of each song.

The historic origin of this music is extremely heterogeneous. Early Arab musicians borrowed from the Egyptians, Assyrians, and Sumerians. Many of the instruments now used are direct descendents of those that appeared in wall paintings and carvings of those civilizations. Greek music theory was translated into Arabic in the 8th and 9th centuries as the science of music became one of the courses of the quadrivium, and was studied by most students of the period.

Seven treatises of music theory appeared under the name of Al-Kindi (d. 874) and three have survived in print. After Al-Kindi there was a gap of about a century in documentation. Following Al-Kindi, the great theorist Al-Farabi published his book Al-Kitaab Al-Kabeer which included immense and detailed information on music and music instruments of that era. Being a good mathematician and physicist, Al-Farabi was able to handle the physical bases of sounds by making valuable contributions to physiological acoustics, i.e. the sensation of tone, which is part of Greek music theory.

The following are some of the most popular instruments of Arab music:

OUD, al-‘Oud (meaning "wood") is a highly ornate instrument made of wood with six double strings, pear-shaped body and non-fretted neck. It is plucked with an eagle feather or a pick. The ‘Oud originated in Ancient Egypt and was later adopted by the Persians, who brought it to the Arabian Peninsula. The great Iraqi musician, Zeriab, introduced the 'Oud to Spain and later to Europe when he sought refuge in Andalusia.

QANOUN: al-Qanoun (meaning "rule", "law") is a descendant of the old Egyptian Harp. The form of the Qanoun is a trapezoid-shaped flat board over which 81 strings are stretched in groups of three, with 24 treble chords consisting of three chords to each note with movable frets called ‘Urab. The Qanoun is placed flat on the knees of the musician: the strings are plucked with the finger or with two plectra, one plectrum attached to the forefinger of each hand plucking separate octaves.

NAY: A Persian word used to describe a single reed pipe. It is one of the oldest instruments in the Middle East. The Nay has 6 holes in the front for the fingers to play, and 1 hole underneath for the thumb. Fine, mellow tones are produced by blowing gently through the orifice of the tube while manipulating the fingers and thumbs: the force of blowing scales (Maqaams) generates octaves by utilizing Nays of various lengths.

MIJWIZ: (means dual) is a type of double reed clarinet played by breathing gently through a circular aperture and by manipulating the fingers over the holes down the front of the tube. The sound it produces may reflect a musical dialogue between two moods

DAF: also known as the Rikk, which corresponds to the English tambourine. It consists of a round frame covered on one side by goat or fish skin, with pairs of metal discs set into the frame that jingle when the hand strikes it. The sounds of this percussion instrument set the rhythm of Arab music.

TABLAH /Darbouka: is also a percussion instrument; made of clay or metal with goat or fish skin stretched over its larger opening. It is placed on the leg; beaten with both hands yielding different sounds: when beaten near the edge it produces sounds like (tic), or near the middle the sound is more like (dom), establishing several rhythmic scales to accompany the meter of sounds produced by accompanied instruments.

Gift Giving in the Arab Countries

Tradition dictates that if you admire an item belonging to another person in an Arab country, it will be automatically given to you. Now technically, you may say, “That necklace on you is lovely,” but not, “What a lovely necklace that is.” The inference is that you admire someone’s taste as a pleasant object, but not admire it because you want such a thing. Please remember to try not, either directly or indirectly, to give an Arab person cause to think you would like any of their possessions, including jewelry, clothing, souvenirs, etc. This can result in cultural misunderstanding and embarrassment. This can also cause you to be the recipient of an article that you really may not want! Please be very careful of this traditional practice in this culture. Thank you.

PLEASE BE FOREWARNED

• Libya is a “dry” country - alcohol is strictly forbidden at all times. Libya has one of strongest bans on alcohol and drug imports. Do not attempt to bring any drugs or alcohol into the country under any circumstances. Should you be arrested by Libyan authorities for having these items in your possession you will be subject to Libyan law. Drug dealing, particularly in the Arab world, is a very serious offense and the penalties are severe. Foreign jails are not pleasant places – most require that you supply your own food and necessities.
• Do not rely on our consular corps to bail you out. They are there for diplomatic purposes, and some help. They do not loan money or buy tickets. In most cases they will only be able to visit you in jail to verify that you are not being treated inhumanely, receive due process of the local law, and pass messages to family.
• It is reported that AIDS is widespread throughout the world. We urge you to take all precautions in this regard.
• Removing antiquities from most countries is not allowed any longer. Do not rely on the advice of the seller of antiquities. If you plan to buy antiquities, check with proper authorities.
• Also, in many Muslim countries proselytizing is illegal. Attempting to convert local residents to another religion can have serious consequences. Please do not bring any materials with you that would be considered an attempt to convert Muslims to another religion.

We would like you to abide by the laws of the countries we visit and have a fun time while you are there.